The doctrine that the content of the conclusion of a deductively valid argument is included in the content of its premises, taken jointly, is a familiar one. It has important consequences for the question of what value valid arguments possess, since it indicates the poverty of three traditional answers: that arguments may and should be used as instruments of persuasion, that they may and should be used as instruments of justification; and that they may and should be used to advance knowledge. The truth is, however, that in each of these cases the argument has only a managerial role and, if there is any work done, it is the premises that do it. It will be maintained that this point has little force against the critical rationalist answer, which I shall defend, that the principal purpose of deductive reasoning from an assemblage of premises is the exploration of their content, facilitating their criticism and rejection. That said, the main aim of the present paper is not to promote critical rationalism but to consider some published objections to the doctrine that a statement asserts every statement that is validly deducible from it. The alleged counterexamples to be considered fall roughly into two groups: statements that emerge with time from a rich mathematical or empirical theory, but were originally unformulated and are deducible from the theory only in a non-trivial way (Frederick 2011, 2014; Williamson 2012); and statements, notably disjunctions, that are easily formulated and are deducible from a theory in a trivial way (Schurz & Weingartner 1987; Mura 1990, 2008; Gemes 1994; Yablo 2014). Each of these counterexamples will be evaluated and dismissed.

Introduction: Salinity stress is one of the most important abiotic stresses in the world that influence the plant growth and productivity. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of salinity stress (0, 75 and 150 mM) and foliar application of nano TiO2 and ZnO (0, 2 and 4 mg L-1)on the growth and some physiological and biochemical traits of Matricaria chamomilla. Methods: Salinity stress was applied in 3-4 leaf stage of plant under hydroponic conditions. The foliar spraying with nanoparticle was done simultaneously with the initiation of salinity stress. 38 days after second foliar treatment, the plants were harvested to study the desired traits. Results and discussion: The highest flower dry weight was obtained in the NaCl0 × both concentrations of nano ZnO and TiO2. The highest concentration of chlorophyll a (20-50 %) was obtained in NaCl0 × both levels of ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles and NaCl75mM × 4 mgL-1 nano ZnO. 150 mM salinity increased malondialdehyde and proline content in plant. The results showed that the foliar treatment of TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticles improved elemental content, yield and protein content of the plant under no-salinity, and 75 mM NaCl salinity conditions.

The combinations of inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and three classification algorithms, i.e., partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), least squares support vector machine (LS-SVM) and soft independent modeling of class analogies (SIMCA), for discriminating different brands of Iranian bottled mineral waters, were explored. ICP-OES was used for the determination of Li, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Sr, Ba, B, Si and Zn in bottled mineral waters (150 samples) from 30 brands. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA) showed differences in water samples according to the mineral composition.120 samples (4 for each brand) were selected randomly for the calibration set, and 30 samples (1 for each brand) for the prediction set. PLS-DA, LS-SVM and SIMCA were implemented for calibration models. The results suggest that ICP-OES combined with PLS-DA, LS-SVM and SIMCA models had the capability to discriminate the different brands of mineral waters with high accuracy. The model can resolve the tap water samples from classified mineral waters accordingly.

Introduction: Ocimum basilicum L. is an herbaceous annual plant from Lamiaceace family. Ocimum basilicum is more valued for its essential oil components, vitamins and elemental content. Nowadays, using soil covers is a major trend in modern agricultural systems mainly due to their water saving potential, prevention of soil erosion, soil temperature equilibrium, nutrients availability, soil structure improvement, positive effect on plant quality attributes, weed control and yield improvement. Organic fertilizers, regulate pH, adjust soil CEC and improve the micro-organisms activity. Dekap® and Estimplex® improves the plant nutrition and the application of these organic sources would be so promising in order to meet the sustainable agricultural system needs mainly to cut the overuse of chemical fertilizers. High pH and calcareous soils greatly impact the quality and yield of plants dominantly due to nutritional imbalances in the most regions of the country. Therefore, the foliar application of nutrients would be an efficient way to overcome the problem. Moreover, water deficiency is another constraint encourages the using bed-covers to combat the water scarcity in many parts of the country. Materials and Methods: In order to study the effects of soil cover (control, black and white) and different levels of Dekap® [Dekap fertilizer is containing 33% P (P2O5) and 42%K (K2O)] and Estemplex (see algae extract) (0, 1. 5, 3 and 4. 5 mlL-1) on growth and some physiochemical characteristics of Ocimum basilicum L. an experiment was conducted as factorial based on completely randomized block design with three replications at Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, Iran. Results and Discussion: The results showed that there were interaction effects of soil cover and foliar applications on phenolics content. The highest data for phenolics content was recorded with black soil cover × 4. 5 mlL-1Dekap (105 mgg-1 DWt), black soil cover × 1. 5 and 3 mlL-1 (98 mgg-1 DWt) Estemplx. The results showed that the highest data for plant dry weight (51 g) were obtained from black soil-cover and the highest plant height and axillary shoots number were recorded in both plastic soil cover. Foliar application of Dekap and Estemplex increased plant height and axillary shoots number. The highest data for N and Mg contents were obtained from black soil-cover and for K and Zn were obtained from black and white soil cover. The foliar application of Dekap and Estemplex increased P and K contents in plant. 1. 5, 3 and 4. 5 mlL-1 Estemplex increased N, K and Mg contents in Ocimum basilicum. The results showed that the highest data for chlorophyll a, flavonoid, total soluble solids and protein content were obtained from black soil-cover. IC50 and superoxide dismutase content of plant influenced by black and white soil cover. Foliar application of Dekap and Estemplex increased flavonoid contents in plant. Foliar applications with three concentrations of Estemplex increased chlorophyll a, IC50 and protein content in plant. 1. 5, 3 and 4. 5 mlL-1Estemplex increased superoxide dismutase, total soluble solids content (2. 1 0 brix) and Zn content (28. 9 and 30. 3 mgKg-1). Conclusion: Adequate and balanced nutrition of plants result in environmental protection mainly by the reduced application of chemical fertilizers, soil erosion prevention, and increased input efficiency. Foliar application is an environmental friendly method to reduce the production changes. The overall results revealed the positive effects of black mulch and Estemplex fertilizer on nearly all the desired traits. It seem that Estemplex fertilizer effects on the growth indices was greater than Dekap fertilizer. Seemingly, with the more detailed studies, this fertilizer has the potential to be employed with the extension section.

IntroductionSalinity is one of the major environmental stressors limiting the growth and development of plant in the agricultural system. Salinity affects the plants from the physiological, biological and molecular point of view. Emphasizely, salinity influence the plants growth and productivity by the induction of water stress, ionic toxicity (Na+, Cl-) and nutrients imbalances. With stress goings on, ROS molecules is produced leading to membranes oxidation damage and hence deteriorate the membranes and adversely impact the plant growth and physiological response. Na high accumulation in the soil medium interferes the nutrient balance in the soil and plant cells, leading to disturbances in nutrients uptake deficiency symptoms, oxidative damage, growth reduction and eventually death of plants. In the saline soils, Na+/K+ and Na+/Ca2+ ratios, high above the standard levels and hence the absorption and essential amounts of K+ and Ca2+ is inhibited; membranes deteriorate and the enzymatic dynamics inside cells is interrupted which is called the induced secondary stress. ROS radicals influenced the activity of chloroplast and mitochondria and eventually the plant survival is affected. Considering the main idea with the present study was to assess the effects of salinity stress on the growth and some physiological traits of Lavandula treated with foliar application in hope that the possible promising data could be advisable to the extension section.Materials and MethodsTwo separate experiments were concluded to evaluate the effects of foliar application of nano-cerium oxide and nano-Iron (0, 2.5 and 5 mg.L-1) on Lavandula officinalis L. under saline (0, 50 and 100 mM) conditions as factorial based on Completely Randomized Design in the greenhouse. In the first experiment, the effects of magnetized Iron and in the second experiment, the effect of cerium oxide were assayed on Lavandula officinalis growth and some physiological traits under salinity stress.Results and DiscussionThe results obtained from the first experiment showed that, the plant dry weight, catalase activity and Fe content were independently affected by the salinity and Fe foliar treatment. H2O2 content (4.6 µmol. g-1FW), total phenolic content (36% increases compared to the control) and oil percent (41% increases compared to the control) were influenced by interaction effects of salinity and nano Fe foliar application. The top amounts of Na (8.9 g.Kg-1), proline (94 µg.g-1FW), malondialdehyde (82 nmol.g-1 FW) and H2O2 were recorded at 100 mM salinity stress. At the second experiment, plant dry weight (25% increases compared to the control) and total phenolic content (29% increases compared to the control) were influenced by interaction effects of cerium oxide foliar application and salinity stress. Catalase activity, H2O2 and K content were influenced by sole effects of salinity and cerium oxide foliar application. 2.5 and 5 mg L-1 cerium oxide treatment increased K content (43% compared to the control) and K/Na ratio. GC/MS analysis revealed that Linalool (10.3-27.1%) and 1-8-Cineol were the major constituent of oil at NaCl50 and 100 mM × 5 mg.L-1 cerium spray.ConclusionOur results revealed that cerium oxide and nano-Fe foliar application improved the plants physiological response under no-saline condition. Salinity adversely imposed the yield, some physiological traits and elemental content of plants. Under 50 and 100 mM salinity foliar treatment were not able to mitigate salinity adverse effects except for phenolic content (both experiment), essential oil content (first experiment) and plant dry weight (the second experiment). In total, lavender is a salt sensitive plant and the idea is that to overcome salinity depression, have to experience more concentration of foliar treatment.Acknowledgementshis study was supported and funded by Azarbaijan shahid Madani University, Iran

Background and Objectives: Basil (Ocimum basilicum L. ) is an annual, aromatic and herbaceous plant belonging to the Lamiaceae family which is used as fresh vegetable and traditionally used to treatment many diseases. Plant nutrition is one of the important factors that affect quantitative and qualitative characteristics of plants. Nitrogen is one of the most important nutrients for plant growth and development. Plants can absorb nitrogen either as nitrate (NO3-) or ammonium (NH4 +), and for optimal uptake and growth each plant species requires a different nitrate to ammonium ratio. This experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of different nitrate to ammonium ratios on morphophysiological characteristics and element concentration of basil. Materials and Methods: To study the effect of different nitrate to ammonium ratios (100: 0, 75: 25, 50: 50, 25: 75 and 0: 100) on hydroponically grown basil, a pot experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with four replications. In order to evaluate the growth parameters (plant height, stem diameter, number of leaves, leaf area, number and length of axillary shoots, fresh and dry weight of leaves, stems and roots), chlorophyll content and nutrients concentration (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, iron, copper, manganese and zinc in the leaves and roots), plant sampling was carried out at flowering stage. Results: The results showed that plant growth parameters (such as number of leaves, number and length of axillary shoots, fresh and dry weight of leaves, roots and stems) and chlorophyll index (SPAD) were significantly affected by different nitrate to ammonium ratios. The different nitrate to ammonium ratios had no significant effect on plant height, stem diameter and leaf area. The growth parameters and chlorophyll content decreased with increasing of ammonium in nutrient solution and the 75: 25 ratio of nitrate to ammonium was the most suitable treatment for most growth parameters and chlorophyll content. Also nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and copper (Cu) concentration in leaves and potassium (K), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) content in leaves and roots were significantly affected by nitrate to ammonium ratios. As nitrate to ammonium ratio decreased, N, P, Fe and Zn content of leaves increased, while K, Cu and Mn content of leaves and K, Fe and Mn content of roots decreased. Conclusion: The findings of this study showed that basil plant requires lower concentrations of ammonium in nutrient solution for proper growth. Therefore, a solution containing 75: 25 of nitrate to ammonium ratio is recommended for basil plant production under hydroponic culture conditions.

The effects of biochar (zero, 10 and 20 tons per hectare) and foliar application of Ascophyllum nodosum extract (zero, 2 and 4 ml L-1) were assayed on the growth and physiological responses of Tanacetum balsamita as a factorial experiment based on the randomized complete block design with three replications during 2019-2020 under the field condition.The interactions of biochar × algae foliar application influenced the dry weight, leaf area, essential oil content and also the protein, phenolics, flavonoids, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content of plants. The utmost plant dry weight, leaf area, proteins, phenolics, flavonoids, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content was recorded in 20 ton/ ha of biochar × 2 and 4 ml L-1 of algae extract and, 10 ton/he of biochar × 4 ml L-1 algae treatment. The highest chlorophyll index belonged to the application of 10 and 20 ton/ha of biochar × 4 ml L-1 of algae extract. 20 ton/ha biochar × 4 ml L-1 of algae extract enhanced plant height up to 76 cm which was 59% higher than the control. 20 ton/ ha biochar × 4 ml L-1 of foliar treatment increased the essential oil yield in plants.Conclusion: The overall results revealed that 20 ton/ha biochar along with foliar spraying of 4 ml L-1 algae extract had promising effects on essential oil yield of Tanacetum balsamita. The results with some more detailed studies would be advisable to the extension section.

Savory (Satureja hortensis L.) is one of the important medicinal plants, which is used in pharmaceutical and perfume industry. In a pot experiment, effects of Azospirillum irakense (A) and Pseudomonas putida (P) and nitrogen levels (no nitrogen (N0), N1: 80 mg/kg, and N2: 160 mg/kg) were investigated on elemental composition, essential oil and thymol content of savory. The results showed that both bacteria had a significant and positive effect on essential oil percentage. In the presence of A. irakense (A+), essential oil was 0.832% and increased by 44% compared to the absence of this bacterium (A-). Also, in the presence of P. putida (P+), essential oil increased 26% by weight compared to the absence of this bacterium (P-). Application of nitrogen fertilizer, also enhanced the essentiol oil percentage, but it was significantly decreased in N2 level. Both bacterial strains and nitrogen fertilizer increased the thymol content, but the increase was not significant. A. irakense increased the shoot nitrogen concentration up to 8.37%. P. putida and A. irakense increased shoot and root K concentration by 10.24% and 15.86%, respectively. A.irakense deacreased shoot P and Ca concentration and P.putida increased shoot and root P concentrations by 17.73% and 30.32%, respectively.